The United Nations Brundtland Commission produced the widely accepted definition of sustainability; "meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." (1987). This definition incorporates social, environmental, economic, and political systems. The achievement of sustainability is the vision of the WATgreen initiative on campus. WATgreen began in October 1990 at a week organized by students for environmental activities called ‘Not Another Green Week’. This week symbolized the University’s commitment to sustainability on campus (WATgreen, 2001). To accompany the WATgreen initiative a course was created that focused on problem solving related to environmental issues on campus. This course, known as Greening the Campus, focused on achieving a harmonious system incorporating the social, environmental, economic, and political aspects. This provides an opportunity for students, staff, and faculty to increase the quality of the environment on campus while decreasing the overall operating costs of the University.

This particular Greening the Campus project chose to examine the winter maintenance system at the University of Waterloo. This system includes the use of sand and salt for the purposes of ice and snow removal. The intention was to focus on life cycle and cost analysis of various products designed for ice removal and how they affect the University’s ecology. This project was also forced to examine the reality of the situation, where safety and liability must be the primary objective for the University. Our goal was to sustain this objective while advancing the system towards sustainability.

During the winter months the University of Waterloo spends a great deal of time and money purchasing and distributing products to increase traction and decrease ice. By examining this system we hoped to discover alternatives to the current system that were more environmentally sound while at the same time being more cost effective for the University. This could be in the form of direct cost of product, or less impact and therefore less restoration on the part of the University. To have a clear understanding of possible alternatives of the current system, it was important to gain awareness of present guidelines and standards as well as the various systems and subsystems than ensure the proper sanding and salting operations on campus.

The foundation for this research was based on a previous Sanding and Salting, Greening the Campus project from 1998. One of the recommendations from this assignment was future study of the University of Waterloo’s sanding and salting system. The spatial limits of both studies were the same however the systems examined did differ. The original study included the custodial staff in their actor system and effects of the sanding and salting on campus buildings interiors. The 1998 study focused on alternatives to the system in place including alternative application methods and chemicals. Ideas from the findings and recommendations of that assignment were taken into consideration and used as a basis for further research. Suggestions that were built upon were the reduction in use and impacts of salt, an improvement of the performance of salt, an evaluation of the system in place at the University and a proactive approach to sanding and salting on campus.

The geographical limits to the study were restricted to the areas maintained by the University of Waterloo Plant Operations. These areas include Ring Road, walkways and pathways enclosed within this road, campus residences and associated walkways, Columbia Ice Fields, the University of Waterloo Apartments, East Campus Hall, the B.F. Goodrich Building and 156 Columbia Street (See Appendix A). These geographical limits are similar to those outlined in the original Sanding and Salting WATgreen project from 1998.

This study was conducted during the 2001 winter term, which runs from the beginning of January to April. This timeframe was ideal for the assignment because of the ability for direct observation of the winter conditions that produce the need for sanding and salting.

Life Cycle Analysis

Life Cycle Analysis is a technique for assessing the potential environmental aspects and potential aspects associated with a product (or service), by:

• Compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and outputs,
• evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with those inputs and outputs,
• interpreting the results of the inventory and impact phases in relation to the objectives of the study.

A systematic quantitative method of assessing the desirability of projects or policies when it is important to take a long view of future effects and a broad view of possible side-effects. (Office of Management and Budget, 1992)

De-Icing

"The adhesive friction of a body on a surface on which it moves." (Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 2001)

Many important systems exist when examining the issue of sanding and salting on campus; transportation, biophysical, economic, actors, safety etc. We have chosen to focus on two: actor systems and biophysical systems. The actor system is important because it will enable us to understand who makes decisions regarding the purchasing and spreading of sand and salt on the University campus. The biophysical component of the system will enable us to examine what happens to the sand and salt after it is spread on roads and pathways on campus.

The actor system (see figure 1) examined identifies all of those involved in the sanding and salting practices on campus and the ways in which they interact. Each person identified within the actor system play an important role in the safety of people on campus. All of the practices of sanding and salting on campus are directed through the University’s Plant Operations. When it is observed that conditions are becoming icy, or that snow is accumulating, Plant Operations act accordingly. Often, weather forecasts are observed in order to predict when road maintenance will be required. Les Van Dongen and Jerry Hutten ensure that proper procedures are followed and that safety is maintained under supervision of Tom Galloway, Director of Plant Operations. There are eight groundsmen and nine equipment operators that work in Plant Operations. The groundsmen are responsible for the application of de-icing agents at the entrances of buildings and on pathways. The equipment operators apply the sand and salt around Ring Road and in the parking lots. The snow removal in the parking lots is not the responsibility of the equipment operators but is contracted out to Alex Paving, Richard Schaffer, and/or Regional Snowplow Ltd. The University gets its products from two main suppliers, sand is brought in by Forwells and Sifto supplies the salt. As mentioned earlier, this system is based on the safety of staff, faculty, students and visitors to the University of Waterloo. If complaints do occur as to icy conditions on campus they are dealt with by Campus Police and then directed to Plant Operations in order to rectify the situation. If accidents occur these are dealt with and reported to Health Services.

The biophysical aspect (see figure 2) of the sanding and salting system on campus is contained within the broader political system of regulations and standards of the University. This is evident through the way that the main goal of the system is ensuring the safety of those on campus. If conditions on campus appear to be icy and hazardous, if it is predicted that these conditions may occur, or if complaints are received then the plant operations decide to apply sand and salt as required. The excess products at entrances to the buildings are cleaned up and disposed of whenever possible. The sand and salt applied to roadways and pathways is often ploughed away with newly fallen snow, is tracked into buildings or lost in the environment. The effects of this system on the environment are of major concern and are therefore a major focus of this study.

What is the current sanding and salting system used at the University of Waterloo? What economically and environmentally sustainable alternatives to the current system exist?

In an average year, 13 million tons of salt are used in North America's snowbelt to keep winter traffic flowing. Come warmer temperatures, melt water can carry this salt and sand to ground and surface water, raising the question of how to balance safe winter travel with protecting water resources (Silk, 2000). The winter climate in the Kitchener/Waterloo area falls within this snowbelt demanding measures be taken by the University to ensure the health and safety of all students, staff, faculty and visitors. Slippery roads, pathways and entrances have created conditions that need the use of sand and salt to decrease accident incidence. We examined the current system to find ways to make the sanding and salting system on campus more environmentally sound while remaining economically viable.

The life cycle analysis of current practices and those of available alternatives were to be examined in order to make an educated recommendation concerning sanding and salting practices on campus.

We used a variety of methods to triangulate our results and research. We began with archival research. This research gave us a background for the rest of our study. Using the Internet as our main resource we had access to the most recent studies concerning sand, salt and alternatives used and tested in other areas. Once we had a solid understanding of all the issues surrounding sanding and salting, we interviewed key players involved with the actor system. Scientific research projects were also designed to assess the impacts of sand and salt on the University’s terrestrial and aquatic systems.

A variety of Universities, municipalities, and provincial/state transportation ministries have completed extensive studies to assess the impacts of salt and sand on the environment. Palys "Research Decisions" was used as guideline for our research process as well as both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. There have also been extensive studies measuring the environmental effects of alternatives such as Calcium Magnesium Acetate, Calcium Chloride, and Magnesium Chloride.

Interviews with several key players were held after the interview, questions were approved by the Ethics Board (see Appendix B). This established the decision making process of the sanding and salting system on campus. Tom Galloway, Director of Plant Operations, supplied information on how and when salt is applied during the winter. Jerry Hutten and Les Van Dongen, managers of Plant Operations were also interviewed and provided key information with regards to quantities and functions of the system. Kevin Stewart, Director of Safety, was interviewed at Health Services to assess the volume of related accidents on campus.

Samples were taken at two intersects on Ring Road at the University of Waterloo (see Appendix A). Snow samples were taken on March 8, 2001. The wind velocity was minimal at 5 km/h and there was no precipitation. The road samples were taken on a section of Ring Road that ran from the West to the East, and the sample intersects were perpendicular to the road. The Southern samples, closest to the center of the University, were taken on the opposite side of the sidewalk. The Northern samples, closest to Columbia Road, were taken at the edge of the road, the first intersect approached a parking lot by the 5 meter point.

The path samples were taken on the same day under the same conditions. The path was the paved path which runs between the stairwell by the Arts Lecture building to South Campus Hall, before the gravel path that goes down off the field. Northern samples are those closest to the center of the University. Southern samples are those closest to Ring Road.

Snow was collected using a square-tipped spade, a tape measure was utilized to determine the exact locations of the 3 and 5 meter points. Some points had less snow than others, but as much snow from the same distance was taken, getting as much of a core sample as possible. The snow was put into doubled plastic bags that lined the inside of 1.6 L cans. The 18 cans were attained from Campus Food Services and cleaned before use. A windmeter was used to measure the wind velocity on the sampling day, and a compass was used to ensure the sampling points were perpendicular to the road.

The snow from all the points was taken back to the Environmental Studies Field Ecology Laboratory and covered with tarps. The snow was allowed to melt for 3 days, until there was no ice left in the cans. Once the samples were water, conductivity, pH, phosphates, and chlorides were tested. After all the tests were performed, the data was analyzed for patterns regarding location and other effects, such as wind, using graphs and tables.

The second scientific study conducted examined the potential impacts sanding and salting have on Laurel Creek, a stream in the Grand River Watershed. A section of this creek runs through the University of Waterloo campus and is therefore a key indicator of these impacts. Four points (see Appendix C) where chosen along the creek in order to identify water quality changes as the water passes through the University and into the city of Waterloo. The first sampling point was located in Claire Creek on Westmount Avenue next to the Waterloo Fire Department. This station was chosen as an indicator of the levels of chloride and sedimentation that left from the campus stream. The second study point was located on the corner of University and Westmount on University property. This point would serve to indicate the amount of affluent leaving the campus. The third point chosen was the Math and Computer Drain. This drain has been studied in the past for its impacts on the creek. The final sampling point, located prior to Health Services pond, was chosen as a baseline indicator of water quality before the current passes and collects affluent from the MC Drain.

The testing was completed on two separate occasions in attempts to identify the levels of: pH, conductivity, turbidity, phosphate, chloride and suspended solids, of the creek prior to and after spring thaw. The first testing occurred on March 2^nd, 2001 during the early morning when temperatures remained fairly low. The second testing occurred on March 23^rd in the afternoon when temperatures remained above zero.

A water sample was taken across the width of the creek at each location with special care taken not to mix sedimentation. Once this complete the width of the stream was measured. Three points were identified across the creek and the depth of each was measured using a meter stick. At each of these same points the stream velocity was calculated using a current meter. The propeller was placed 60% from the bottom of the creek and faced upstream for a time period of 50 seconds. This determined the velocity of the stream at each point. Once the above methods were conducted at each sampling station data analysis was conducted in the Environmental Studies Field Ecology Lab. Methods for the analysis were conducted using the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater Appendix D. Raw data for these results can be found in Appendix E.

CMA was developed for de-icing in the 1970s by Chevron and is a combination dolomitic lime and acetic acid (Dalecky et al., 1996). CMA is effective to temperatures as low as -7 degrees Celsius but it is slower acting than salt and up to 20% higher application rates are needed (General Manager of Engineering Services, 1998). CMA, like road salt, is most effective when applied before precipitation and can be combined with salt to decrease the costs of CMA and decrease the environmental impacts of road salt (Cryotech Deicing Technology, 1998). CMA is relatively non-toxic and biodegradable. This product increases the permeability of soil, and has poor mobility in soil therefor contamination of groundwater is not a concern (McCrum, 1992). Studies illustrate that terrestrial and aquatic systems are not harmed by CMA (Cryotech Deicing Technology, 1998). The corrosive abilities of road salt are also a concern for municipalities and CMA is a corrosion inhibitor. This product is the most environmentally friendly alternative to salt but costs approximately $900/tonne compared to salt $51/tonne (General Manager of Engineering Services, 1998).

Calcium chloride is effective to -30 degrees Celsius, and therefore is more effective than road salt (General Manager of Engineering Services, 1998). It is however, severely corrosive to metals. It is usually applied in a liquid form and has hygroscopic traits, meaning it absorbs water from the atmosphere (General manager of Engineering Services, 1998). Calcium chloride is slightly less damaging to the environment than road salt, but can be highly damaging to the insides of buildings (Koenig and Rupp, 1999). It also had a very low toxicity rating for trout streams ( Pollard Highway Products, 2000). Caking of the compound can occur which can be an irritant to humans and the cost is still high at approximately $300/tonne (General manager of Engineering Services, 1998).

Magnesium Chloride is similar to Calcium Chloride in cost, but is less corrosive and less damaging to the environment (General Managing of Engineering Services, 1998). Magnesium Chloride has a 40% greater ice-melting capacity than road salt and Calcium and Magnesium are less damaging to ecosystems than the sodium (Harvey Teneycke, personal communication, March 19, 2001) . There is less archival information available on the environmental effects of Magnesium Chloride, thus there may still be unknown risks. Table 1 demonstrates the various alternatives mentioned above and their associated risks.

Table 1. Select properties of and alternative deicing compounds (General Manager of Engineering Services, 1998)

Interviews revealed that there are no specific policies which determine the amount and when salt is applied. Plant Operations intuitively decide when sand and salt is needed on the roads and pathways. Safety is the primary concern of the University, and there are not unlimited funds available for deicing on campus. Therefore alternatives such as using CMA are not economically feasible for the University. Any change in the sanding and salting system on Campus would have to keep safety as a priority.

After analyzing the data from the 16 sampling points, certain patterns began to emerge. There were higher levels of conductivity and chloride the closer the sampling point was to the road. Higher levels of conductivity and chloride (see figure 2) were observed on the Southern points, some levels were as high as 7834 mg/ L which is highly toxic to vegetation (Larry Lamb, personal communication, March 12, 2001). The prevailing winds on campus usually come from the Northwest (Larry Lamb, personal communication, March 8, 2001). This illustrates that much of the sand and salt applied to the roads is being sprayed to the side by passing vehicles or being blown by the wind from the middle of the road where it is applied. The pH levels and phosphate levels seemingly showed no patterns. The raw data is available in appendix F.

PH is the "measure of hydrogen ion activity and is an important description of the chemical and biological properties of water" (Cuyahoga Valley, 1997). The scale ranges from 0 to 14, 0 being acidic and 14 basic. When a pH indicates 7 is it considered to be neutral. According to the Water Quality Sourcebook natural fresh waters range from 4 to 9. The pH levels obtained during both tests do no indicate levels of high concern. It should be noted that pH was stable at three points however the Math and Computer Drain showed an increase in pH during spring thaw. These levels will not negatively influence the aquatic environment or nutrient availability.

Conductivity is a "numerical expression of a water’s ability to conduct an electric current"(Cuyahoga Valley, 1997). It originates most frequently from de-icing salts, industrial and municipal effluents. The acceptable conductivity level in surface water is 50 to 1500 uS/cm. All sampling points were well within this range accept for the Math and Computer Drain during the 1^st test that reached a high of 4070. This indicates that there are amounts of chlorides that could negatively affect fauna and flora.

Turbidity measures the suspended solids such as silt, clay, organic matter, plankton and microscopic organisms present in the water that reduces the beam of light through the water. Quality guidelines suggest that discharges resulting from human activity should not alter ambient turbidity levels" (Inland Waters Directorate, 1979). The acceptable levels for drinking water should be no more than 5 NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units) for recreational purposes it should range between 5 and 50 NTU. It is recognized that turbidity will increase during spring runoff. Keeping this in mind it seems that the turbidity levels at each station are below standards however the MC drain poses some concern. In addition, levels that reach 40 NTU should become a concern for stream health. The drain suffered a dramatic increase in turbidity levels during spring runoff from 40 to 87 NTU. As discussed earlier high turbidity levels reduce the ability for plants to photosynthesize and can encourage the growth of bacteria.

Phosphate is an "indicator of nutrient enrichment and can cause algal blooms or eutrophication in severe situations. The increased algae may be considered to be aesthetically displeasing in certain areas. There are two main sources of phosphates, detergent and fertilizers. The Guidelines for Interpreting Water Quality Data suggest that natural lakes are generally less than 0.01 mg/L otherwise nuisance growth could occur (1998). They also suggest that drinking water should not exceed 0.01 mg/L. Aquatic life forms in lakes are generally tolerant to 0.05 mg/L to 0.15 mg/L. Levels found at each testing station appear to be below these standards however it should be noted that there was a significant increase in phosphate concentration during spring thaw from the MC drain and these levels could limit plant growth or encourage nuisance growth of algae.

Chloride is a "major inorganic ion that occurs in variable concentrations in natural waters" (Inland Waters Dictorate, 1979). It is an indicator of sewage, animal wastes and road salt in the water. High levels of chloride in water systems can have damaging effects on the aquatic organisms. The acceptable levels for good fish fauna is considered to be 170 mg/L. According to the U.S Environmental Protection Agency chloride was found to be toxic to certain aquatic species when exposed to concentrations of 230mg/L over a period of four days. It was also indicated that species that are lower on the food chain could be impacted at much lower levels (New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services). Acceptable levels were found at both the University and Westmount location as well as prior to Health Services however, concerning levels were evident at Claire Creek as well as the MC drain. The University should only be concerned with the impact the MC drain is having on the creek. The high levels during winter indicate that either road salt or sewage is entering the creek. The first test indicated a level of 698.1 while the second test indicated a level of 235 this means that road salt used during the winter is most definitely entering the drain and could negatively impact the creek.

Sedimentation load measures the kilograms of matter floating through the creek per day. After examining the study results the significance of these contamination levels must be evaluated. Increases in sedimentation originate from sanding and salting practices as well as erosion on stream banks or on land. It is to be expected that the sediment load will increase during spring runoff because the water running through the drains will flush out excess sediment. The levels of sediment prior to Health Services as well as the MC drain remain a concern.

5.7 Effects of Salt on the Surrounding Ecosystem

The salt products that are applied to both walkways and roadways cause a number of negative environmental effects. According to a federal government study, salt used to de-ice Canadian roads is toxic to the environment (Environment News Service, 2000). Sodium chloride, calcium chloride, potassium chloride, and magnesium chloride are types of road salts that are used on Canadian roads (Environment News Service, 2000). The soil, vegetation, and water each show impacts that result from the use of these products.

It is impossible for the salt that is applied to the roadways to stay where it is intended to be. The chemicals that do end up in the soils decrease the aeration of the soil, decrease the ion exchange capabilities and increase the alkalinity of the soils (Agbenowosi, and Seawell, 1998). The greater effects, however, are seen by the eventual harm caused to surrounding vegetation, surface and groundwater. The vegetative species located near these treated surfaces suffer from the effects of these chemicals. The health of the vegetation often deteriorates because of a lack of nutrients. Sodium in some of the salt compounds used will prevent the uptake of these nutrients and therefore deprive the plant of these vital elements (Agbenowosi, and Seawell, 1998). The chloride found in salts damages the leaf margins and shoot tips. Some of the other effects to the plant are bud death, twig dieback, needle burn, abnormal fall colour, and browning (MnSTAC, 2000). Plant kills from these chemicals have been measured at distances of 50 feet from the treated roadways (Environment News Service, 2000).

Water is a vital part of our ecosystem and is very susceptible to contamination from road salts. These chemicals affect both surface and groundwater, which can be very problematic. When these contaminants are incorporated into human water supplies health concerns such as increased blood pressure, heart disease and hypertension may arise (South Dakota Department of Water and Natural Resources, 1990). Dissolved salts in surface water can change the physical properties of water. For example; reducing the ability for nutrient and oxygen mixing to occur in the affected water body due to increased density (Mayer, 1999). Another effect that often occurs is the increase in toxicity of heavy metals found in the water due to a reaction with the chloride ions (Mayer, 1999). The increase in metal concentration could cause bioaccumulation in the aquatic species. Often, the larger of these species such as fish will be more tolerant to the salt toxins but the smaller species such as invertebrates will find lower levels much more damaging (Environment News Service, 2000). The damage to the food chain is severe when those species lower on the ladder are harmed.

Road Salts also affect the personal property of many. These chemicals have been the cause of the corrosion of many water supply pipes, which may lead to the release of other contaminants such as heavy metals (Bradof). As Canadians, the damage that occurs to automobiles from the use of these salts is evident as well. These negative effects must be weighed against the economic benefits of having such a relatively inexpensive product.

Sand and other abrasives improve vehicle traction on snow and ice-covered roads. They can be used at all temperatures and are especially valuable when it is too cold for chemical de-icers to work. Sand is the most common abrasive, but slag, cinders, and bottom ash from power plants are also used.

These abrasives result in some negative environmental impact including the clogging of storm water inlets and sewers. This requires cleanup in urban areas, on bridge decks, and in ditches. If this cleanup doesn’t occur, the materials may wash downstream and end up in lakes and rivers (Wisconsin Transportation Bulletin, 1996). If this should occur rising levels of turbidity would result. High turbidity reduces photosynthesis of submerged aquatic vegetation and algae. If the plants die, the insects and small fish that eat those plants will die as well (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1996). Reduction of water quality through elevated turbidity may directly kill fish and vegetation or negatively impact survival and growth, modify natural movements and migrations of fish, and reduce abundance of food organisms available to fish. It also makes it difficult for fish to see their prey.

Increasing levels of turbidity caused by road sand can result in decreased levels of dissolved oxygen within the aquatic ecosystem. Dissolved oxygen is an indicator of depressed oxygen levels. Adequate amounts of dissolved oxygen must be available for fish and other aquatic organisms. The dissolved oxygen requirement is dependent on temperature and varies greatly from one organism to another therefor it is difficult to recommend an arbitrary concentration for all organisms, but it is known that concentrations of less than 4mg/L produce detrimental effects on most aquatic organisms (McNeely et al, 1979).

Recent concern has also been raised in the area of air pollution. Air pollution from particles less than 10 microns in size has been documented from winter use. As a result, cleaner abrasives and quicker cleanup are required in areas with air pollution problems (Wisconsin Transportation Bulletin, 1996).

Increased runoff and sedimentation caused in part by sand from roads contributes to reduced pool depth and results in an increased width-to-depth ratio. Cumulative effects play a significant role in the elevation of stream temperatures, which can be a major limiting factor for survival of most fish (Silk, 2000).

5.9 Limitations to the Study

• Time was a constraint; given more time campus impacts could have been studied more extensively, as well as researching the viability of some of our recommendations.
• Boundaries were limiting because the University is not a closed system, the City of Waterloo’s sanding and salting practices affect the campus ecosystems. Therefore the University does not solely create the impacts of the sand and salt on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
• Determining life cycle cost analysis was difficult. We were unable to find suppliers for some of the alternatives, and estimating the amount of the materials that would be used on campus was unfeasible. Another difficulty was that the savings achieved buying bulk of the alternative materials would not be met be the University’s needs
• Our methodology was limited in many ways. The scientific studies performed were for a small number of samples, over a short period of time. Longer, more in depth studies would have more accurately revealed the environmental impacts on campus. Another methodological constraint was the interviews. The interviews with Plant Operations might have been biased in the attempt to possibly make themselves seem more environmental or efficient. Archival research was limited because it was impossible to research all the alternatives available, and some alternatives have not been studied much as of yet.

In response to both the scientific results and archival research several alternatives became apparent. However, due to the lack of economic feasibility the following recommendations could be applied to improve the present sanding and salting system. The following recommendations could also help to improve the quality of water entering Laurel Creek.

As discussed previously some species are intolerant to chlorides. Special attention should be paid to sensitive species on campus. In particular the Dorney Garden next to Environmental Studies, the native species garden between the Dana Porter and biology buildings as well as any small shrubs or trees. It is also recommended that a CMA blend be used around these areas to minimize negative impacts.

In addition it is recommended that snow pilling be avoided in these areas as it creates a surge of salt concentrate water during spring thaw which could then leach into the soil and potentially harm sensitive plants and trees.

After analyzing the scientific data from Laurel Creek it is evident that activities on and off campus could potentially alter the creek ecosystem. It is recommended that the University, in collaboration with the City of Waterloo, assess the potential of improving the drainage system thus reducing the amount of sand and salt in addition to other contaminants potentially entering the stream. A percolation system would help to remove phosphorous, bacteria and suspended solids thus contributing to improved stream health. A French drain system like the one used at Canadian Tire on Weber in Waterloo would help to filter road and parking lot runoff before it water reaches the creek. This drain is constructed using "pea gravel or crushed rock, woven landscape fabric and perforated drainage pipes" (Water Works, 2001). The French drain would connect with the main line to reach its final destination, the creek.

This year the University of Waterloo will be implementing buffer zones around Laurel Creek to reduce erosion and ultimately improve creek water quality. It is recommended that salt tolerant species be included on the outer parameter of this buffer zone. These species would absorb and use chloride before it reaches more sensitive species or even the creek. This would be particularly useful in high run off zones. For example the closer the creek is to the road or a path the higher the potential for salt and sand to leach into the creek at these locations buffering with salt tolerant species becomes increasingly important. The University could also assess the possibility of breaking up large open and paved areas with vegetated strips. By breaking up large paved areas to reduce the amount of runoff. As a result it will decrease the amount of sediment loaded runoff (see appendix G for salt resistant species)

If the levels of suspended solids are indeed a concern for University patron’s than a sediment trap is recommended. This could be built in the creek to retain excess silt, sand and clay from flowing into Laurel Lake where it could deposit. This method would facilitate the need to dredge the lake in that it would be much more time and cost effective to dredge a small creek compared to a lake. This method has been used in Clair Creek on the North of Craiglieth Drive in Waterloo as well as prior to Health services in Laurel Creek.

Further scientific studies should be done to examine the impacts that the sand and salt are having on Laurel Lake. It would also be interesting to distinguish the other sources of contamination for the drain. Future WATgreen projects could focus on the economic feasibility of altering the current sanding and salting system.

Pre-wetting the sand and salt with water or a chemical, like calcium or magnesium chloride, will prevent the salt and sand from being blown by the wind. Pre-wetting, especially with a chemical, will also increase the efficiency of the application, thus requiring less sand and salt needing to be applied. To deal with these issues, it has been suggested that pre-wetting sand with a liquid de-icing chemical just before spreading has proven effective in embedding the sand on icy pavements. It has also been suggested that since abrasives must stay on the surface to be effective, they should not be used when they will be covered with more snow or when they will be blown off quickly by traffic. Heavy traffic reduces the effectiveness, requiring repeat applications and should therefore only be applied at hazardous locations including curves, intersections, railroad crossings and hills. (Wisconsin Transportation Bulletin, 1996).

Clearing the sand earlier in the spring will decrease impacts associated with sedimentation. This should occur prior to heavy spring rains. The sand could also be stored and reused the following season.

Implementing clear public policies on when and where to apply sand and salt would increase the efficiency of the system.

Anderson, R. et al. 1998. Final project: By the sanding and salting group. WATgreen. http://www.adm.uwaterloo.ca/infowast/wat...projects/library/w98sandsalt/final2.

Cryotech Deicing Technology. 1998. www.cryotech.com/cma.htm

Cuyahoga Valley National Park. 1997 Water Quality Monitoring Report. www.hps.gov/cuva/waterqua.html

ISO Committee, 1995. http://www.trentu.ca/faculty/lca/LCAdefinition.html

Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. 1998 Guidelines for Interpreting Water Quality Data. British Columbia.

New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services. Environmental Fact Sheet. www.des.state.nh.us/factsheets/wmb/wmb-4html

Office of Management and Budget, 1992. The White House Website. http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars/a094/a094.html

Pollard Highway Products. 2000. www.mnsi,net/~pollard/product.htm

The Brundtland Commission, Our Common Future, 1987. United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development. http://www.ci.scottsdale.az.us/environmental/Sustainable/default.asp

The Rouge River Project. www.wcdoe.org/rougeriver/getinvol/individual/erosion.html

Water Works. Constructing a French Drain. www.zwaterworks.com/frenchdrn.htm

WATgreen, 2001. http://www.adm.uwaterloo.ca/infowast/watgreen/

Zelany, L. The Salt Tolerance of Roadside Vegetation. Plant Science Department, Connecticut.

These interview questions have been created by a group of undergraduate students in the Greening the Campus and the Community (ERS 250) class at the University of Waterloo. These questions are in regard to the current sanding and salting practices and potential alternatives to these practices. Your answers will be combined with those of other completed interviews. In answering these questions you will be giving the researchers greater insight into these sanding and salting practices. If uncomfortable with any of the questions during the interview you may decline to answer. This interview will take approximately fifteen minutes. Your opinions and information are very valuable and there are no anticipated risks associated with participation in this interview.

Your participation in this study is voluntary and can be confidential if you prefer. If we wish to use your name in our final report we will contact you for your permission. All completed copies of this interview will be destroyed upon completion of the project. The completed project will be used for the purpose of the course and will be displayed upon the WATgreen web site. This project has been reviewed and has received ethics clearance through the Office of Research Ethics. In the event that you have any questions or concerns about your participation in this study, please contact Dr. Susan Sykes at 519-888-4546 ext. 6005.

If you wish to obtain a summary of the results of the project, it will be available on the WATgreen website at http://www.adm.uwaterloo.ca/infowast/watgreen/. The project supervisor is Susan Wismer from the University of Waterloo. She may be contacted at 519-888-4567 ext. 5795.

Thank you very much. Your participation is greatly appreciated

1. Are you involved in the current sanding and salting system at the University of Waterloo? If so, how?
2. Who do you interact with regarding sandin and salting?
3. Are there areas of cammpus that you are responsible for in the sanding and salting system?
4. Do you know of any guidelines regulating the current sanding and salting system on campus? If yes, what are they?
5. Do you feel that the current system of snading and salting is environmentally sound and exonomically efficient? If yes, why? If no, why not?
6. Do you have andy recommendations regarding the current sanding and salting system?
7. Are you aware of any viable alternatives to the current sanding and salting system?

1. Does your organization supply any large institutions, such as Universities at present?
2. How does your product compare with other systems for snow removal and ice traction?
3. Are your products environmentally friendly? If so, how?
4. Do you have comparative information?
5. Would it be possible for you to send us a catalogue and price list for your snow removal/ice traction product? If yes please send to:

Waste Management Co-ordinator

University of Waterloo

200 University Ave.

Waterloo Ontario

N2L 3G1

THANK YOU for your time, we will e-mail you the web location of our ERS 250 WATgreen project, upon its completion.

Methods used

• Chloride, CL (unit- mg/l)
• Argentometrc Method (Standard Methods, see full reference below)
• PH
• Beckman Electromate pH Meter- Model 1009
• Conductivity (unit- uS/cm²)
• Orion conductivity Meter- Model 160
• Total Suspended Solids Dried at 103-105 degrees celcius (unit- mg/l)
• Standard Methods, see full reference below
• Total Reactive Phosphorous (Phosphate, PO₄) (unit- mg/l)
• Stannous Chloride Method
• Standard Methods, see full reference below)

• Turbidity (unit- NTU, Nepholometric Turbidity Unit)
• Hach Turbidimeter- Model 2100 A

**American Public health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation. 1992 Standard Methods For the Examination of Water and Wastewater- 18^th Edition. Washington, USA.

• Meter stick
• Hip waders
• Bottles 1,2,3,6
• Current meter (propeller # 15426)
• Measuring tape
• camera

Test 1: March 2^nd, 2001

Test 2: March 23^rd, 2001

Results Test 1

Results Test 1 continued

Results Test 2

Results Test 2 Continued

Raw data for scientific research of snow on campus.

Source: Zelazny, L. The Salt Tolerance of Roadside Vegetation